Flash Memory and USB Drives Flash memory is a type of non‑volatile digital storage technology that retains data even when power is removed. It is widely used in modern computer systems because of its durability, speed, and portability. Flash memory forms the foundation of many storage devices including USB drives, memory cards, and even solid‑state drives (SSDs). Unlike traditional magnetic storage devices that rely on moving parts, flash memory uses electronic circuits to store information, making it robust, fast, and ideal for mobile applications. A USB drive, commonly known as a USB flash drive, thumb drive, memory stick, or pen . . .

Introduction Optical storage media are types of secondary storage devices that use laser technology to store and retrieve digital data. Unlike magnetic storage such as HDDs or electronic storage such as SSDs, optical storage uses a spinning disk and a focused laser beam to read and write information. Optical media have been widely used for storing music, software, multimedia files, backups, and distribution of digital content because they are portable, inexpensive, and easy to transport. Optical storage media form an important part of computing history and are still used today in scenarios that require removable media for data distribution or . . .

Introduction A Solid-State Drive (SSD) is a modern type of secondary storage device used in computers and digital systems to store data persistently without any moving parts. Unlike traditional hard disk drives (HDDs), which rely on spinning platters and mechanical read/write heads, SSDs store data electronically using integrated circuits and flash memory. This absence of mechanical components allows SSDs to deliver much faster performance, greater durability, and lower power consumption compared to mechanical drives. SSDs have become increasingly popular in laptops, desktops, servers, and portable storage solutions because of their ability to significantly reduce boot times, speed up application loading, . . .

Introduction A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a widely used secondary storage device that stores digital data permanently in a computer system. HDDs retain information even when the computer is powered off, making them essential for saving operating systems, applications, user files, multimedia content, and backups. Due to their large storage capacity and affordability, HDDs remain popular in desktops, laptops, servers, and external storage solutions. Hard disk drives use magnetic storage technology to record data on rotating disks known as platters. These platters are coated with a magnetic material that allows data to be written and read in binary form. . . .

Introduction Secondary storage devices are non-volatile memory components used to store data and programs permanently in a computer system. Unlike primary memory such as RAM, secondary storage retains information even when the computer is powered off. These devices are essential for storing operating systems, installed software, user documents, multimedia files, and backup data. Secondary storage provides a balance between storage capacity, cost efficiency, and data persistence. Although access speed is slower compared to primary memory, secondary storage ensures long-term availability of information and supports large-scale data storage required by modern applications. Key Characteristics of Secondary Storage Non-volatile: Data remains stored . . .

Mesh Analysis (or Mesh Current Method) is a fundamental technique in electrical circuit analysis used to determine the currents in the loops (meshes) of a circuit. When circuits include current sources, the method has special considerations. This article explains the concept step by step. What is Mesh Analysis? Mesh analysis is based on Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL): The algebraic sum of voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is zero. In mesh analysis: Assign a loop current to each independent mesh. Apply KVL around each loop. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to find the loop currents. Once loop currents are known, branch currents and voltages across elements ...

Electrical Engineering is one of the oldest and most dynamic fields of engineering, playing a crucial role in shaping the modern world. It involves the study, design, and application of electrical systems, electronics, and electromagnetism. From powering homes and industries to enabling advanced communication networks, electrical engineering touches almost every aspect of daily life. Over time, the field has evolved into several specialized branches, each focusing on a specific area of technology, such as power systems, electronics, telecommunications, and control systems. Understanding these branches helps students, professionals, and enthusiasts to choose their area of interest and contribute to technological ...

What Is Magnetizing Force? Magnetizing force (symbol H) — also called magnetic field intensity — is a measure of the strength of the magnetic field created by a current‑carrying conductor or coil. It describes how strongly a magnetic field can magnetize a material or establish magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. The greater the magnetizing force, the stronger the resulting magnetic field in the material. In simple terms, H represents the magnetic “effort” produced by electric current to set up a magnetic field along a path. Basic Definition & Formula The magnetizing force is defined as the magnetomotive force (MMF) per unit length of ...

Introduction Ladder networks are one of the fundamental circuit configurations used in electrical and electronics engineering. These networks are called ladder networks because their circuit structure resembles a physical ladder, where series elements form the vertical sides and shunt elements form the horizontal steps. Ladder networks are widely applied in filter design, impedance matching, digital-to-analog converters, and transmission systems due to their simplicity, modular nature, and predictable behavior. What Is a Ladder Network? A ladder network is an electrical circuit made by arranging components such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors in a repeating series–shunt pattern. In this configuration, one component is connected in ...

Introduction In today’s digital era, computers have become an indispensable part of government operations across the world. Governments are responsible for managing vast populations, complex administrative systems, national resources, and public services. Performing these tasks manually is slow, costly, and prone to errors. Computers have transformed traditional government systems into efficient, transparent, and citizen-friendly digital platforms. From policy planning to public service delivery, computers now form the backbone of modern governance. Administrative Efficiency and Digital Record Management Government departments maintain enormous amounts of data related to citizens, land, finance, employees, and legal matters. Computers help in: Storing large volumes of data in digital databases Fast ...

Leon Charles Thevenin was a French telegraph engineer who worked on Ohm's law and extended it to the analysis of complicated electrical networks. He is remembered today almost entirely for one small piece of work. His theorem, published in 1883, was based on his study of Kirchhoff's Laws and is found in every basic textbook on electrical circuits. It has made his name familiar to every student of electrical circuits and to every electrical and electronics engineer.

Count Alessandro Volta was a Italian scientist who contributed in the development of an electrical energy source from chemical action in 1800.
For the first time, electrical energy was available on a continuous basis and could be used for practical purposes. He also developed the first condenser known today as the capacitor. He has invited to Paris to demonstrate the voltaic cell to Napoleon. The International Electrical Congress meeting in Paris in 1881 honored his efforts by choosing the volt as the unit of measure for electromotive force.

Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854), a German physicist, in 1826 experimentally determined the most basic law relating voltage and current for a resistor. Ohm's work was initially denied by critics.
Born of humble beginnings in Erlangen, Bavaria, Ohm threw himself into electrical research. His efforts resulted in his famous law. He was awarded the Copley Medal in 1841 by the Royal Society of London. In 1849, he was given the Professor of Physics chair by the University of Munich. To honor him, the unit of resistance was named the ohm.

English scientist, physicist and chemist Michael Faraday is known for his many experiments that contributed greatly to the understanding of electromagnetism. Faraday, who became one of the greatest scientists of the 19th century, began his career as a chemist. His major contribution, however, was in the field of electricity and magnetism . He was the first to produce an electric current from a magnetic field, invented the first electric motor and dynamo.

Andre-Marie Ampere was a French physicist and mathematician who was one of the founders of the science of classical electromagnetism. His name endures in everyday life in the ampere, the unit for measuring electric current.
On September 18, 1820, introduced a new field of study, electrodynamics, devoted to the effect of electricity in motion, including the interaction between currents in adjoining conductors and the interplay of the surrounding magnetic fields. Constructed the first solenoid and demonstrated how it could behave like a magnet (the first electromagnet). Suggested the name galvanometer for an instrument designed to measure current levels.